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]]> 3/10/2010 6:39:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=173 173 Saturday, March 06, 2010
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Saturday, March 13, 2010
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]]> 3/4/2010 7:37:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=172 172 ]]> 2/26/2010 8:04:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=171 171 Sunday, 1 p.m.
Line: Vikings by 3

Brett Favre and Tony Romo began the season as overexposed enigmas: Favre a fading legend turned spotlight hog, Romo a tabloid Lothario more likely to inspire a Carrie Underwood single than engineer a playoff win. Romo has silenced doubters with his best December and January ever, and although Favre’s bigger-than-the-team reputation sparked a late-season drama, no one would be talking about the Vikings in January without him. On the Romo-Favre undercard: two great running games, two excellent defenses and a special-teams battle within the battle.

Cowboys on Offense
The Cowboys rushed for 198 yards last week, but rushing yards will be harder to come by against a Vikings defense that allowed only 87.1 yards per game in the regular season. The Vikings’ front four (Jared Allen, Pat Williams, Kevin Williams, and Ray Edwards) is the best in the N.F.L.; the rookie linebacker Jasper Brinkley (16 tackles in three starts) isn’t as versatile as the injured starter E.J. Henderson, but he benefits from the fact that few offensive linemen can get past the front four to touch him. The Vikings’ secondary is more vulnerable than the front seven. The Cowboys will attack the deep middle with their receivers and Jason Witten. Vikings safeties Madieu Williams and Tyrell Johnson allow too much to happen in front of them: they’ve combined for just one interception and 64 tackles after passes. Those tackles occurred an average of 12.6 yards downfield.


Vikings on Offense
Adrian Peterson is the best all-around running back in the league, but the Vikings’ running game faded in the second half of the season because of poor offensive line play. Guard Steve Hutchinson has been playing through shoulder injuries and reached the Pro Bowl strictly on reputation. Bryant McKinnie is great at times but is pushed around when he’s not minding his technique, which is why Brad Childress benched him against the Panthers. McKinnie can’t afford to have a sloppy game against DeMarcus Ware. Brett Favre is at his best when executing the old-fashioned West Coast offense plays Bill Walsh scribbled on his legal pad: five receivers running short routes, Favre throwing just after he takes his third step from the center. When the line is blocking well, Favre and Peterson lead an unstoppable ball-control offense. When the line breaks down, Favre must complete 10 passes to gain 70 yards, and that’s too much to ask of any quarterback.

Special Teams
Returner Percy Harvin (27.5 yards per return) is so dangerous that many teams squib-kick against the Vikings to keep the ball out of his hands. The average Vikings drive starts at the 32-yard line, the best among the playoff teams. The Cowboys’ kickoff specialist, David Buehler, had three more touchbacks last week after leading the N.F.L. in the regular season. Wade Phillips must decide whether he trusts Buehler enough to kick the ball over Harvin’s head.

Pick: Vikings



Jets at Chargers
Sunday, 4:40 p.m.
Line: Chargers by 7 1/2

The Jets have skated for a month, beating a Colts team that didn’t care and a Bengals team whose one offensive threat was neutralized by the defensive superstar Darrelle Revis. It’s the thin ice of a new day: the Chargers have enough offensive firepower to make Revis a nonfactor, a big-play defense that can exploit any Mark Sanchez rookie mistakes, and special teams that can win the field position and field goal battle.

Chargers on Offense
Darrelle Revis will shut down the Chargers’ top receiver, Vincent Jackson, but Jackson was only targeted for 21 percent of Chargers passes during the regular season. (Chad Ochocinco, by comparison, was thrown 27 percent of Bengals passes, including almost every deep one.) Antonio Gates (79 catches) and Malcom Floyd (45 catches, 17.2 yards per catch) are dangerous downfield threats; LaDainian Tomlinson and Darren Sproles are effective on screen passes, forcing opponents to think twice before blitzing. Norv Turner’s scheme emphasizes play-action deep passes from running formations; the Chargers will protect Philip Rivers with six or seven blockers, neutralizing all but the most creative blitzes. Center Nick Hardwick returned in Week 16 after missing most of the season with an ankle injury. Among centers, only the Colts’ Jeff Saturday is better at reading blitzes and adjusting the blocking assignments. The Chargers’ running game has declined as Tomlinson has aged, but the Chargers still run well enough to convert short touchdowns and sit on leads.

Jets on Offense
The Jets will be able to run against the Chargers, whose interior defense never adjusted to the loss of tackle Jamal Williams in Week 1. The Chargers allow 4.5 yards per rush, and their blitz-first mentality will allow Thomas Jones and Shonn Greene to find open space once they breach the line of scrimmage. The Jets won’t be able to rely exclusively on the run to grind out a win against the high-scoring Chargers, and they will be in trouble if forced to the air. The Chargers’ 3-4 defense is as confusing as anything Rex Ryan can contrive, and linebackers Shaun Phillips (seven sacks) and Shawne Merriman (four) give the Chargers a devastating pass rush from both edges, taking away the rollout plays that worked well against the Bengals.

Special Teams
Darren Sproles averages 24.1 yards per kickoff return and has a 66-yard touchdown on a punt return. Nate Kaeding hasn’t missed a field goal shorter than 40 yards this season and is 3 of 4 beyond 50 yards. Jets punter Steve Weatherford needs heart surgery in the off-season but will play this week. Remember that before making a “kickers are wimps” remark.
]]> 1/15/2010 5:52:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=168 168 Britain is the oldest industrial country in the world. The Indus­trial Revolution took place first in this country. A century ago Britain was known as the factory of the world. Many goods were manufactured in Britain and then sold all over the world. At that time the British economy was among the strongest in the world. Its standard of living was much higher than that of its European neigh­bours. However, today things are quite different. Soon after the Second World War, Britain not noly gave up its economic hegemony but also suffered a deep loss of its position of industrial leadership. Its per capita GDP had been overtaken by the United tates in 1900, by France and West Germany in 1950 and by Italy in 1960. Between 1950 and 1973, Britain's GDP grew at an average annual rate of 3.0 % . This was lower than that of most of its trading part­ners. Growth was hampered by chronic balance of payments deficits. A country's balance of payments is the difference between the money from exports and the cost of imports. A country is run-fling a balance of payments deficit when the total amount of money it spends on imports is more than the total amount of money it gets from exports. Britain has been running balance of payments deficits for many decades. As a result the British pound has fallen to its lowest level. Britain is no longer able to match the growth rates of other industrialized countries. The term "British disease" is now often used to characterise Britain's economic decline.

For those who were not affected by gloomy financial reality, the 1920s were the Roaring Twenties. Women with cropped hair and short dresses drank cocktails and danced to the new music, jazz, which had crossed the ocean from America. Silent films, another American import, were the wonder of the age.

The effects of the New York Stock Market crash of 1929 soon spread throughout Europe and by 1931 Britain was entering the Great Depression. The industrial areas of northern England, south Wales, and Clydeside in Scotland were the worst hit by the depres­ sion. About 3 million people were unemployed and had to rely on the "dole", a limited state benefit, to keep them from starvation. In the south of England and the Midlands, the depression hit less hard and recovery was faster, mainly due to the rapid growth of the motor, electrical and light engineering industries. Indeed by the middle of the decade people were. told by Neville Chamberlain, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 'that we have recovered in this coun­ try 80 percent of our prosperity".

In 1936 Edward I succeeded his father George V but abdicated, after a reign of 10 months, in order to marry Wallis Simpson, a twice-divorced American. He married Mrs. Simpson in 1937 and thereafter lived mainly in France. He was made Duke of Windsor and governor of the Bahamas (1940-45). Edward's brother came to the throne and became George VI.

Although life in the years before the First World War was not sat­ isfactory for many people, yet reforms continued to come year by year. Factory acts made further improvements in conditions of work; housing acts got rid of some of the worst slums, and educa­ tion acts brought free schools and free school meals to poor children.

Women's position in society was gradually improved. Thanks to the militant feminist movement of the Suffragettes led by Mrs. Pankhurst before the First World War, votes were granted to wom­ en over 30 as soon as the war was over and to all women in the same terms as men ten years later.

In 1905 a general election brought the Liberals back to power un­der Sir Henry Camphell-Bannerman. The Liberal government car­ ried out some reforms. More slums were cleared and towns re- planned; labour exchanges were established and minimum wages fixed in certain industries; pensions were paid to the old; and unions were granted protection from liability for losses caused by strikes.

In 1911 the Parliament Act was passed, severely limiting the powers of the Lords and establishing the Commons as the supreme legislative body. In that same year a National Insurance Act provid­ ed insurance against sickness and unemployment. Members of Par­ liament were granted an annual salary of £400; and maternity grants were established.

The problem of Ireland remained unsolved. In 1914 a Home Rule Bill was passed, setting up an Irish Parliament with limited powers. But its application was delayed until after the First World War.

]]> 1/9/2010 6:21:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=163 163
1. The growth of dominions

In the late 18th century Britain acquired vast, underpopulated territories: Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

After the Seven Years' War (1756-63) between Britain and France, Canada was ceded to Britain by the 1763 Treaty of Paris. French rights were guaranteed by the Quebec Act of 1774. Then the Canada Act of 1791 divided Canada into Upper Canada ($Jntari­o) where the British had settled, and Lower Canada (Quebec) populated by the French. Only one serious revolt against British rule took place in 1837-38. The British North America Act of 1867 established Canada as a dominion. The four founding provinces were Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The others entered later.

Australia was first discovered by the Dutch in the early 1600s. Captain James Cook discovered Botany Bay and claimed the east
coast region for Britain, naming it New South Wales (1770). The English began to transport convicts to Australia in 1788. Free set­tlement began in 1816, and flQ convicts were sent to Australia after 1840. The gold rushes (1851-1892) brought more people to Aus‑tralia, and in 1901 the six self-governing colonies were united in one dominion—the independent Commonwealth of Australia.

New Zealand was settled by Maoris in about the 14th century. New Zealand was sighted by the Dutch seaman Abel Tasman in 1642, and named for the Netherlands province of Zeeland. In the 1770s Captain James Cook visited New Zealand and claimed it for England. Missionaries became active in the early 19th century, and systematic colonization.was begun in 1840 by the New Zealand Com­pany. Britain drew up the Treaty of Waitangi (1840) with the Maori chiefs, and made the country a separate colony (1841). It achieved self-government in 1852, became a dominion under the British crown in 1907, and was made completely independent in 1931.

2.The Conquest of India

The establishment of the British East India Company in 1600 was a case of economic penetration. The company took control of areas and as a result the British government became directly involved in Indian affairs The India Act of 1784 set up a "Board of Control" to supervise the Company. Political instability and French interfer­ence prompted further intervention. By 1819 the British conquest of India was almost complete. In 1857 the native troops of the Bengal army of the East India Company mutinied because of (1) resent­ment at the reforms of ancient Indian institutions carried out by the British; (2) fear of forcible conversion to Christianity; and (3) the issue of cartridges greased with cow-fat, which offended Hindus, or pig-fat, which offended Muslims. After the mutiny, the control of India passed to the British Crown in 1858, and Queen Victoria became Empress of India in 1877.

3. The Scramble for Africa

The• Dutch East India Company established a settlement at Cape Town in 1652. Settlement extended inland to form Cape Colony in the 18th century. Britain took the colony i 1806. to protect its route to India, an act officially recognized by the Netherlands in 1814. Increasing numbers of British settlers arrived in the 1820s, and to escape British dominati the Boers moved northward in the Great Trek (mass migration, 1835-36) to Natal, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Britain took Natal in 1843 but recog­nized the independence of the Transvaal in 1852 and the Orange Free State in 1854. Relations between the British colony and the Boer republics became worse, especially when Britain took (1871) Griqualand, an area of the Orange Free State where diamonds had been discovered. An attempt to take the Transvaal (1877) resulted in war between Britain and the Boers (1880-81) in which Britain was defeated, and the Transvaal's independence was recognized. But the discovery (1866) of gold at Witwatersrand brought many new immigrants, known as Uitlanders, to the Transvaal. Presi­dent of Transvaal's refusal to give them the right to vote and the Jarneson Raid (1895) resulted in the Boer War (1899-1902). Al­ter the British victory, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State be­came British colonies (1902) and were united with Cape Province and Natal to form the Union of South Africa (1910).

At the beginning of the 19th century British possessions were con­fined to forts and slave trading posts on the West coast. Over the 19th century the interior of Africa was gradually discovered and col‑onized by Europeans. By 1900 more than 9/10 had been colonized. Britain led the way in this race to take over the fertile and productive areas of Africa, but France, Portugal, Belgium, Germany and Italy all claimed a share. In 1885 in Berlin they even signed a treaty which laid down rules by which the"scramble"was tobe conducted. Apart from the colonies in the South and West, which continued to expand at this time, Britain was also involved in the North East in Egypt and the Sudan. In Egypt the French influence had been strong ever since the French engineers built the Suez Canal, and the French owned half the shares in the Canal Company. British interest in this region grew after 1875 when the British government bought almost all the remaining Canal shares from the bankrupt Egyptian ruler, Khedive Ismail. Ismail s abdication (1879) was followed by a revolt (1882) . This was crushed by the British, who occupied Egypt( 1882­1914) Egypt invaded the Sudan in 1821. The nationalist Mandi led a revolt in 1881, after which a series of campaigns resulted in joint Anglo-Egyptian rule in 1899.

4. Aggression against Chine

Britain, France and Germany were also rivals in establishing trading posts and naval stations in the Far East. In the 1 830s British merchants began to smuggle opium into China from India. Although China had banned the opium trade in 1799, the British merchants still made enormous profits from it. In 1839 the Chi­nese, led by Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu, confiscated about 20,000 chests of opium and burnt them at Canton. The British colonialists, seeking to force China to open ports and end her re­strictions on foreign trade, used this as a pretext and launched a war of aggression against China in 1840. The British troops occupied Hong Kong in 1841, and the fall of Zhenjiang in 1842 threatened Beijing itself. By the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) (1842) China ceded Hong Kong to Britain and opened five ports of Xiamen, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Ningpo and Shanghai to British trade. Britain 'was to receive over £ 6 million war indemnity. A second war (1856-58) ended with the treaties of Tianjin (1858), towhich France, Russia and the US were opened 11 more ports.By 1900 Britain had built up a big empire,never set". It consisted of a vast number of protectorates, Crown Colonies, spheres of influence, and self-governing dominions; and it included 25% of the world's population and area.

]]> 1/8/2010 7:29:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=162 162

As the new working class became established in the industrial towns in the late 18th century, they became aware of the power which "they could possess if they acted together instead of separately. So various working class organizations such as friendly societies and mutual insurance companies were formed to bring about improve­ ments in their standards of living. However, the movements were regarded with suspicion by the government as possible centers of revolution, especially after the French Revolution of 1789-93. Con­sequently Parliament passed the Combination Acts of 1799-1800 to forbid the formation of unions. These laws were repealed in 1824. As a result the 1825 Act allowed workers to form unions but not to obstruct workers and employers. It was now difficult to strike with­ out court action following.

     Most early trade unions were small and local. It wasn't until after 1825 that large unions began to combine workers in different parts of the country. In October, 1833 the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union (GNCTU) was established. This attempt to form a national union came to nothing after the trial and transportation of six Dorsetshire agricultural labourers ("Tolpuddle Martyrs") in 1834 on the charge of administering false oaths.

     For 30 years'industrial relationships remained stormy, but until 1850 working class energies were taken up with other movements such as the Chartist Movement &id the Anti-Corn Law League. A new kind of trade unionism developed among skilled workers, such as the Amalgamated Society of Engineers (ASE). The members of the ASE paid one shilling per week at a time when most earned less than one pound per week. In return the ASE offered benefits simi­ lar to those of friendly societies (1. e. benefits for sickness, unem­ ployment or old age). The ASE was the model for other national craft unions formed in the 185Os and 1860s among boilermakers, carpnters, bricklayers and other skilled building workers. An im­ portant part of the work of these new unions was restriction of entry to their trades. These new model unions tried to avoid confronti­ tions with employers as far as possible. The New Unionism was not favoured by all workers. The lower paid were still outside it and re­ mained largely unorganized. In the 1860s trade unionists began to meet regularly to discuss matters of common interest (e. g. regula­ tion of hours, technical education and conditions of appren­ticeship). In 1868 the Trades Union Congress (TUC) was start­ ed; thus began a new phase in which track unionism had a national organization capable of coordinating the interests of industrial work­ers.

Trade unions had always lacked legal rights. They had to fight two strong opponents together—employers and the^. State. Influ­ enced by the 1867 Royal Commission, the Liberal Government passed two new laws, which gave the movement new legal security. The Trade Union Act of 1871 legalized the trade unions and gave fi­ nancial security. It meant that in law there was no difference be­ tween collecting money for benefit purposes and collecting it to sup­ port strike action. The Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act of 1876 gave unions the right to exist as corporation, able to own property and to defend their rights corporatively (i. e. not as mere collections of individuals) in courts of law. Two important develop­ ments followed in the last 20 years of the 19th century; the growth of unions where they were most needed, among unskilled workers; and the formation of a political party, the Labour Party.

The Labour Party had its origins in the Independent Labour Party (ILP), which was formed in January, 1893 and led by Keir Hardie, a Scottish miner. The Independent Labour Party was too idealistic and its leaders too individualistic ever to become a mass party. The foundation of an effective party for labour would depend on the trade unions. When in 1899 Hardie and the ILP urged the English and Scottish TUCs to endorse the idea of "united political action," the TUCs acted. In 1900, representatives of trade u­ nions, the ILP, and a number of small socialist societies set up the Labour Representation Committee (LRC). The aim of the LRC was simply to promote in Parliament the interests of labour. The LRC changed its name to the Labour Party in time for the general election which was called for 1906. The Labour Party participated (1915-18) in the war coalition government, became the main op­ position party (1922), and formed minority governments (1924 and 1929-31) under MacDonald.

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]]> 1/7/2010 1:21:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=161 161 Political change in England did not come through revolution but through gradual reform. At the general election of 1830, the Whigs under Lord Grey were returned to power after more than half a century in opposition and turned their minds to the problem of par­ liamentary reform. Why should Parliament be reformed? There were several reasons: (1) Power was monopolized by the aristocrats.

In the 18th and 19th centuries the Lords had far more influence than it has today and the Commons were also really "gentry" on edge of aristocracy. Most important ministers were "peers" (aris­ tocrats and bishops of Church). The Commons were elected only by a very small proportion of the population. The vote was a privilege for a small number of male citizens. No females were allowed to vote in national elections before 1918. Members of Parliament were not paid.

(2) Representation of town and country, and North and South was unfair.

Today the country is split into equal sized units for voting (i. e. each returns 1 member of Parliament). In the 19th century there were county and borough seats (i. e. rural and urban). In counties all with property worth 40 shillings per annum could vote and 2 members of Parliament were elected. Borough voting rights varied. The system had not changed since it began, yet location of most population had. Big new cities like Manchester had no seats. Some deserted Southern villages still had two each. The Southwest con­tributed a quarter of all members of Parliament. It was over repre­ sented.

(3) There were also various so-called rotten or pocket boroughs. Rotten boroughs had been busy market towns, and now were de­ serted, but they could still elect Members of Parliament. In pocket boroughs, elections were not won by political views but by influ­ ence.

At that time, there was no secret ballot. Votes were recorded in poll-books for all to see. Candidates could buy off or bully voters. So some voters were already so intimidated by the great local landowner that even before the election the seat was already "in his pocket".

Between 1832 and 1884 three Reform Bills were passed. The Re­ form Act of 1832 (also called the "Greater Charter of 1832") abol­ ished "rotten boroughs", and redistributed parliamentary seats more fairly among the growing towns. It also gave the vote to many householders and tenants, based on the value of their property. Then the New Poor Law of 1834 forced the poor people into work­ houses instead of giving them sufficient money to survive in their own homes.

There was widespread dissatisfaction with the Reform Act of 1832 and the New Poor Law. There was dissatisfaction also with the fail­ ure of attempts to develop trade unionism. Some radicals and mili­ tant workers saw the 1832 Great Reform Act as a great betrayal by the middle class of the working classes and were determined to re­ new the working class fight for political equality. In 1836 a group of skilled workers and small shopkeepers formed the London Work‑ ing Men's Association. It aimed "to seek by every legal means to place all classes of society in possession of equal political and social rights", its leader was William Lovett, a skilled worker. They drew up a charter of political demands (a People's Charter) in 1838, with the intention of presenting it to Parliament. it had six points: (1) the vote for all adult males, (2) voting by secret baL­ lot, (3) equal electoral districts, (4) abolition of property qualifi­ cations for members of Parliament, (5) payment of members of Parliament, and (6) annual Parliaments, with a General Election every June.

Support for these six demands was loudly voiced at meetings held both by day and night all over the country. Other working men formed Chartist groups throughout the country. At a great 1838 meeting in Birmingham the movement was officially launched, with the aim of pressing Parliament to accept the 6 points.

The Chartists could be roughly divided into two groups: the Moral Force Chartists and the Physical Force Chartists. The former heade4 by William Lovett wanted to realize their aims by peaceful means ⁽⁴ politics of persuasion"). The latter headed by Feargus O'Connor, wanted to achieve their purpose by violence.

The Birmingham radical MP, Attwood, was responsible for hokling a National Convention in London in February 1839 and for presenting a petition to .the House of Commons in July, 1840. The Convention revealed conflicts (disagreements) within the move­ ment and great differences between the Northerners (who were fun­ damentally anti-industrialists) and the men from the Midlands and London. Chartist riots occurred in Birmingham, Sheffield and Newport where 24 Chartists were killed in a full-scale rising (November 3, 1839). Between 1840 and 1842 the Chartist move‑ ment was widely split, but a second petition was presented in May, 1842 and was rejected. A proposed great Chartist Demonstration in 1848 considerably alarmed the Government. But there were fewer demonstrators than expected and, in the face of the police, the meeting ended quietly with a third petition being conveyed to Parlia­ment. Chartism failed because of its weak and divided leadership, and its lack of coordination with trade-unionism. The working class was still immiture, without the leadership of a political party armed with correct revolutionary theory. The Chartist movement was, however, the first nationwide working class movement and drew at­tention to serious problems. The 6 points were achieved very gradu­ ally over the period of 1858-1918, although the sixth has never been practical. Lenin said that Chartism was "the first broad, really mass, politically formed, proletarian revolutionary movement".

(1) Britain was well placed geographically to participate in Eu­ropean and world trade;

(2) Britain had a peaceful society, which, after the 17th cen­ tury, was increasingly interested in overseas trade and colonies. In­ ternational trade brought wealth to merchants and city bankers. They and those who had done well out of new farming methods pro­ vided capital in large quantities for industrialization.

( 3 ) The limited monarchy which resulted from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 ensured that the powerful economic interests in the community could exert their influence over Government policy.

(4) It was a country in which the main towns were never too far from seaports, or from rivers, which could distribute their products.

(5) Britain had many rivers, which were useful for transport but also for water and steam power. Britain also had useful mineral resources.

(6) British engineers had sound training as craftsmen.

(7) The inventors were respected. They solved practical prob­ lems.

(8) Probably laissez faire and "Protestant work ethic" helped.

(9) England, Scotland, and Wales formed a customs union af­ ter 1707 and this included Ireland after 1807. So the national mar­ ket was not hindered by internal customs barriers.

(10) The enclosures and other improvements in agriculture made their contributions by providing food for the rising population, labour for the factories, and some of the raw materials needed by industry.

While the movement to enclose the land and use new agricultural methods was at its height, similar things took place in manufac­ tui. Before the 18th century most industries were done in the home in villages and small towns, using very simple hand operated machines. Now new techniques and water powered machines result­ ed in organization of industries on a large scale. At this time popula­ tion became increasingly concentrated in towns, especially in Mid­ lands, North of England, Southern Wales and Central Scotland. Changes occurred earliest and quickest in textiles, especially cotton and silk and in other trades like hardware, pottery and chemicals.

Production of woolen cloth was traditional and some of the skilled tasks had already started to be done in workshops rather than in the home even before the 18th century. Spinning and weaving, howev­ er, were done at home. Spinning was a part-time job for wives. Weaving was a full-time male occupation. Often the retailers rented looms to weavers. New textile trades like silk and cotton, howev­ er, were first to adopt factory methods of production. By 1760 the silk industry was well established, but small and no competition for the French and Italians. The real "revolution" in textiles was in 1770 when power-driven machinery was introduced. Cotton had been slow to develop because cotton was imported from West Indies and America. Spinning pure cotton was difficult. For a long time it was mixed with wool (or linen) to make it stronger. Cotton was already associated with Southern Lancastrians. Southern Lancashire had a damp climate ideal for the threads, and was close to rivers and coal fields, and to the great port of Liverpool At first technology aided weavers. John Kay's flying shuttle (1733) speeded up hand weaving, creating demand for faster yarn spinning. Then spinning was revolutionized by James Hargreaves' spinning jenny (1766), which enabled one hand labourer to spin many threads at a time; and by Richard Arkwright's waterframe (1769) and Samuel Crompton's mule (1779), which replaced hand labour altogether, and required power to drive them: first water-power, then steam. Edmund Cartwright's power loom (1784) eventually enabled weav­ ing to catch up with spinning. British cotton now rivaled the best calicoe and muslin of the East. The first steam engine was devised by Thomas Newcomer at the end of the 17th century, and the Scot­ tish inventor James Watt (1736-1819) modified and improved the design in 1765 and produced a very efficient steam engine with ro­ tary motion that could be applied to textile and other machinery. Perhaps the most important element in speeding industrialization was the breakthrough which came when Abraham Darby succeeded in smelting iron with coke instead of charcoal in 1709. This hugely increased the production of iron which was used for machinery, rail­ ways and shipping. Similar developments occurred in the forging side of the iron industry when improvement such as Henry Court's puddling and rolling proce.ss_'s (1784) enabled vastly increased quantities of high-quality iron to replace wood and stone in many sectors of the economy. Improved transportation (e. g. road and canal construction) ran parallel with production. By the early 19th century, Britain had a road network of some 125, 000 miles (200,000 km). As a result of the industrial revolution, Britain was by 1830 the "workshop of the world"; no other country was yet ready to com­ pete with her in industrial production. Towns grew rapidly and be­ came the source of the nation's wealth. The north of England, un­ til the 18th century a backward region, was now the most advanced in Britain; mechanization destroyed the livelihood of those who could not invest in it. The working men worked and lived in ap‑ palling conditions (e. g. the workers in factories were treated badly, working 15 hour days in poor light and deafening noise.). "Lud­ dites" supposedly led by Ned Ludd attempted to destroy the hated machines, but were severely punished by the government. The In­ dustrial revolution created the industrial working class, the prole­ tariat, and 'it later led to trade unionism. The two events which most alarmed the British ruling classes in the closing decades of the 18th century were the American War of Independence and the French Revolution. In the American War of Independence' the colonists proved themselves willing to fight for e­ quality, national identity and political representation. Their wr cry "no tax without representation" was Just as valid for the British middle class and working class when Parliaments still represented ented only aristocrats. In the French revolution, people were pre­ pared to remove the heads of the aristocracy and anyone else who de­ nied them liberty, equality and fraternity.

Elizabeth was 25 when she came to the throne. She was Henry 1 's daughter by Ann Boleyn whom he beheaded. She reigned Eng­land, Wales and Ireland for 45 years and she remained single. She made political use of the offers of marriage made by Philip II of Spain and others. Elizabeth's reign was a time of confident English nationalism and of great achievements in literature and other arts, in exploration and in battle.

1. Elizabeth and Parliament

Generally speaking, Elizabeth was able to work with Parliament. This was because the Puritans in the House of Commons were still loyal to the Queen although they demanded further religious reform; and Elizabeth only called Parliament at infrequent intervals when she needed its political support. Besides, Elizabeth avoided troubling Parliament too often for pounds by making strict economies at Court. But Elizabeth's relationship with Parliament was often tur­ bulent. Parliament had grown in status since Henry ,I 's day and

hoped to receive recognition of this in two ways. It wished its cus­ tomary right of free speech confirmed in writing; and it wanted to be allowed to start discussion of important questions at will, not by invitation. Elizabeth would not permit either thing. They conflict­ ed with her royal prerogative to decide certain important questions herself. Elizabeth treated 5 questions as personal and private. These were her religion, her marriage, her foreign policy, the suc­ cession to the throne, and her finance.

2 Elizabeth's Religious Reform

Elizabeth's religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Mary's ties with Rome and restored her father's independent Church of England, i. e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. Elizabeth desired "that there should be outward conformity to the Established religion, but that opinion should be left free." Her religious settlement was unaccept­ able to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ar­ dent Catholics.

Elizabeth I spent nearly 20 years resisting Catholic attempts to ei­ ther dethrone or assassinate her. Some Catholics wished to put her Catholic cousin Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, on the throne and return to Catholicism.

Mary was a devout Catholic and also the next heir to the English throne, and had a powerful following of Catholic lords. Sent to France as a child, she returned a young widow and in 1565 married her cousin, Lord Darnley. But she became far too intimate with her private secretary, Rizzio. Lord Darnley became very jealous and stabbed Rizzio to death at Holyrood Castle in Edinburgh. Shortly afterwards Damley himself was killed, and Mary then mar­ ned Lord Both well The nobles believed that Darnley had been murdered by Bothwell and that the Queen herself was an accom­ plice. They raised a rebellion and forced Mary to abdicate in favour of her son, James VI.

On fleeing to England, however, she was detained by Elizabeth in 1568 and languished in prison while plots were fermented, most­ ly involving the assistance of Spain. Elizabeth tried and executed Mary, after much delay and hesitation, in 1587, thus removing the conspirators' focal point. The defeat of the Spanish Armada the following year put an end to Catholic conspiracies against Elizabeth. 3. Elizabeth's Foreign Policy

For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and pre­ vented England from getting involved in any major European con- filet.

Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France. So England was able to face the danger from Spain.

After Mary Queen of Scots was executed in 1587, Philip II of Spain, with the blessing of the Pope, made an attempt to invade England in July, 1588, to overthrow the heretical Queen of Eng­ land, to bring England back to Catholicism and to stop English as‑

sistance to the Netherlands where Protestant rebels were in revolt a­ gainst their Spanish masters.

Philip dispatched a fleet of 130 vessels to land in and conquer England. The Armada (the Spanish fleet) sailed up the English Channel. But they proved no match for the more manoeuvrable smaller British ships and, having suffered heavy losses, they were dispersed by a strong gale. Driven further and further north, they were forced to sail round the North of Scotland and down the coast of Ireland. Many of the ships, however, were wrecked in their passage, and only 53 returned to their home ports.

The destruction of the Spanish Armada showed England's superi­ ority as a naval power. The English victory meant a decisive check to the formidable (Counter-Reformation) attempt of Catholicism to recover the northern countries of Europe, and it also enabled Eng‑ land to become a great trading and colonizing country in the years to come.

When Elizabeth I died without an heir in March, 1603, she was succeeded by her kinsman King James VI of Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. King James VI of Scotland was also James I of England, where he was the first of the Stuarts. to take the throne.

Henry ^111, son of Henry \¹11, is usually remembered as the Eng­ lish king who had six wives one after another. He divorced twice and executed two of his wives for supposed adultery. Yet in spite of this rather frivolous image he is regarded as a great king. He took his father's work in rebuilding the power of the monarch stages fur­ ther. He tightened England's control over its remote border areas and over Ireland; he placed local government not in the hands of great aristocrats jealous for personal power but in the hands of the gentry. These men were made Justices of the Peace with full power over law and administration in the provinces. They were directly responsible and ioyal to Henry himself. In foreign affairs Henry VI was aided by Thomas Wolsey, Archbishop and Lord Chancellor. Together they created for England a new active role in Europe. At one point in 1517 England managed to bring all the important states of Europe to London to discuss international peace. Later England was able to ally with both of the superpowers of the day—France and the Habsburg Empire. It was a triumph in terms of prestige.

Henry VI was above all responsible for the religious reform of the Church. There were 3 main causes: a desire for change and reform in the Church had been growing for many years and now, encour­aged by the success of Martin Luther (1483-1546), many people believed its time had come; the privilege and wealth of the clergy were also resented; and Henry needed money.

The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon because she could not produce a male heir for him. But Pope

Clement l refused to annul his marriage to Catherine for he was living in fear of Charles of Spain, the Holy Roman Emperor, who happened to be Catherine's nephew. Henry's reform was to get rid of the English Church's connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of England's monasteries and nunneries because they were much more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws (e g. the Act of Suc­ cession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535) which made his reform possible had three important effects: they stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henry's position (Henry took the title Supreme Head of the Church of England in 1535); Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before. Its importance grew as a result too; and although Henry simply wanted to get rid of Papal interference and did not want to alter theology in any way, his attack on the Pope's power encour­ aged many critics of the abuses of the Catholic Church to expect some movement away from Catholicism towards Protestant ideolo­ gy. He tried to pass a law to correct this error in popular thinking in the 1540s. It did not work. Instead his earlier comments about reading the Bible for themselves encouraged the English people to criticize their priests, and Church teachings, and to be in favor of further changes.

Henry I. was followed by his children Edward VI (1547-1553), Mary Tudor (1553-1558), and Elizabeth I (1558-1603). Real religious change came in his son Edward's time. People call his switch tc Protestant theology "The Reformation". Mary Tudor, however, was still a devout Catholic like her Spanish mother Catherine of Aragon. When she became Queen after Edward she .

King John defied Magna Carta. Soon he raised troops and rav­ aged the north. The barons retaliated by turning to Louis of France for help, but John died in 1216 before he could cause any more trouble.

His son, Henry III (1216-1272), proved little better. He filled the most important offices in Church and State with foreign favourites who flocked to England after his marriage to Eleanor of Provence. In 1242 he undertook an expensive war with France which ended with the loss of the whole of Poitou. In 1258 the King's demands for money to enable his son to be crowned King of Sicily brought matters to a head.

The barons, under Simon de Montfort, Henry III's brother-in- law, rebelled. They forced the king and his son Prince Edward to swear to accept the Provisions of Oxfotd. The two main clauses of the Provisions of Oxford were these: Henry should appoint a new Grand Council of twenty-four members, half of whom were to be nominated by the barons themselves; and the King should have a permanent body of fifteen nobles and bishops to advise him, with­ out whose authority the king could not act.

Encouraged by his wife and the Pope to defy the barons, Henry 36 refused to confirm to the Provisions of Oxford. A civil war broke out between the king's supporters, mostly foreign mercenaries, and the baronial army led by Simon de Montfort. At the battle of Lewes in Sussex in May, 1264 the king was defeated by De Montfort and taken prisoner.

After this battle, while the King and Prince Edward were kept in prison, Simon de Montfort summoned in 1265 the Great Council to meet at Westminster, together with two knights from each county and two burgesses (citizens) from each town, a meeting which has been seen as that of the earliest parliament. In ancient Saxon times kings had only an advisory body (Witan), which was composed only of great men and easily dismissed. Now each county was asked to send two knights and each town to send two representatives to the Great Council. The Great Council developed later into the Lords and the Commons known as a parliament. Gradually it became cus­ tomary that the meetings of the Great Council were held at West­minster in the hail of the royal palace, on the banks of the Thames. For a long time afterwards the barons and bishops (the "Lords") were always invited while the knights and burgesses were invited only on special occasions. Increasingly both Houses were called to a­ gree to taxation. The Commons could present petitions to the king. These petitions were actually the first parliamentary bills. Already a Speaker went between the two houses for liaison and to discipline the members. Even today the royal assent to laws is still written in French "le roi le veut" —the king permits it. At this point Parlia­ ment only met by royal invitation. Its role was to offer advice, not to make decisions. There were still no elections, no parties, and the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. This remained so until recent times.

Simon de Montfort's lust for power soon lost him the support of some of the barons. He was defeated and killed by Prince Edward at the battle of Evesham in 1265. In 1266 Henry III was restored to the throne where he reigned peacefully, if not very well, until his death six years later.

Under Edward I, Henry III's son, Wales was conquered (1277­ 1284) and came under the English Crown. The Statute of Wales in 1284 placed the country under English law and Edward I presented his new-born son to the Welsh people as Prince of Wales, a title held by the heir to the throne ever since.

Alfred would rule the rest. Alfred also persuaded their leader, Guthrum, and several of his leading warriors, to be baptized as Christians.

Alfred is known as "the father of the British navy" as he founded a strong fleet which first beat the Danes at sea, then protected the coasts and encouraged trade. He also reorganized the fyrd (the Saxon army), making it more efficient. Alfred, who is said to have taught himself Latin at the age of 40, translated into English Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. A learned man himself, he encouraged learning in others, established schools and formulated a legal system. This, as well as his admirable work with the army and the navy, makes him worthy of his title "Alfred the Great".

After Alfred's death, trouble broke out again. His successors re- conquered the Danelaw, but in 980 Viking invasions renewed. King Ethelred the Unready (978-1016) tried paying the invaders to stay away by imposing a tax, called the danegeld, on his peo­ pie. To his great disappointment, the Danes did, not go away but grew greedier.

When Etheired's death left no strong Saxon successor, the Witan chose Canute, the Danish leader, as king in 1016. Canute made England part of a Scandinavian empire which included Norway as well as Denmark. Canute proved to be a wise ruler. He divided power between Danes and Saxons and, to protect his northern bor­ der, compelled Malcolm H, king of the Scots, to recognize him as overlord. After Canute's death in 1035 his sons, Harold and Hardi­ canute reigned successively. After Hardicanute's death the succes­ sion passed to Edward the Confessor, son of Etheired the Unready, who had spent most of his life in Normandy, the part of France set‑ tied by the Vikings.

The Ang'o-Saxon tribes were constantly at war with one another, each trying to get the upper hand, so that the kingdoms were often broken up and often pieced together again. By the end of the eighth century Offa, the King of Mercia (AD 757-797), who built the great earthwork known as Offa's Dyke along his western borders to keep out the Welsh controlled for a long time virtually all central, eastern and south-eastern England. But, after his death, Wessex

became the dominant kingdom. It controlled Devon and Cornwall as

well as the lands of the South and East Saxons; and at the begin­ ning of the ninth century, under their King, Egbert, the West Saxons defeated the Mercians. When the Northumbrians submitted to him and took him for their master in 829, Egbert actually be‑

came an overlord of all the English.

The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Among their gods were Tiu, the god of war, Woden, king of heaven, Thor, the god of Storms, and Freya, goddess of peace. The- names Tusr1ay, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday derive from these gods.

Christianity soon disappeared, except among the Celts of Corn­ wall, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In AD 563 on the island of lona, off the west coast of Scotland, a monk called Columba estab­lished a monastery which was to be responsible for much of the Christian conversion of the people of the north. Under its influence

a monastery was founded at Lindisfarne in Northumberland and an­ other at Kells in Ireland, and many smaller ones sprang up through‑

out the Celtic areas. Even so, Christianity remained a fringe belief.
In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St
Andrew's Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen
English to Christianity. The Pope had been attracted by the fair
faces of some beautiful English boys exposed for sale in the stave‑
market at Rome. So, he decided to send a party of his priests to
help the English people. Ethelbert, King of Kent, soon became a

Christian himself. He provided St. Augustine with a house for his followers in Canterbury and in 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Augustine was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the com­ mon people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north. Monasteries sprang up throughout the country and be­ came places of learning. There was disagreement between the Ro‑

man missionaries and the Celtic missionaries. The Roman mission‑

aries held that the Pope's authority was supreme, and the Celtic

missionaries held that Christian belief did not require a final earthly arbiter. Then the two factions held a conference at Whitby in York­ shire in 664. At this Synod of Whitby, the Roman missionaries gained the upper hand.

Although the Anglo-Sxons were ferocious people, constantly quarrelling, they laid the foundations of the English state. They divided the country into shires, which the Normans later called counties, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsi­ ble for administering laws as comprehensive as any in the early me­ dieval world. They devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued until the agricultural revolution in the 18th century. They also established the manorial system, whereby the lord of the manor collected taxes, and organized the local army. And they created the Wi tan (council or meeting of the wisemen), to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today.

Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, invaded Britain for the first time in 55 BC, partly to gather information about the island of which so lit tie was then known and partly to punish the Belgae who had helped their fellow tribesmen in their fight against the conquer­ ing Romans in Gaul, the land that is now France. He landed in Kent with several thousand men but, meeting resistance and bad weather, he decided to withdraw. He returned the following year. His army marched as far as Wheathampstead in Hertforshire, Cssivel1aunus's hilifort, which he captured after fierce fighting. He then withdrew with hostages and prisoners. The successful in­ vasion did not take place until nearly a century later, in AD 43, headed by the Emperor Claudius.

For nearly 400 years Britain was under the Roman occupation. But it was never a total occupation for two reasons. First, some parts of the country resisted. For example, Boadicea (or Boudic­ ca), queen of the Iceni of East Anglia, attempted to drive the Ro­ mans from Britain in AD 61. She succeeded in destroying the capital

of the Romans, Londinium, before being defeated. Secondily, Ro­ man troops were often withdrawn from Britain to fight in other parts of the Roman Empire. Agricola, the Roman general and governor to Britain (77-84), couldn't make a full conquest of all the area cor­ responding to modem Britain. The tribes of Scotland were especial­ ly fierce. The Romans soon realized that they could not conquer them. They withdrew from the north in the second century and built two great walls to keep the Picts, so called because of their "painted faces", out of the area they had conquered. These were the Hadrian's Wall running from Carlisle to Newcastle, and the An­ tomne Wail linking the estuaries of the Forth and the Clyde The Romans still faced 3 problems in Britain. The Picts still attacked them periodically; Saxon pirates attacked them in the southeast; and control was only effective in the south-eastern part of the coun­ try, a small section from Exeter to Tees.

The Romans built a network of towns, mostly walled, many on the sites of Celtic settlements or their own military camps. The suf­ fix - caster or - chester in English place names - Lancaster, Win­ chester and Chester itself^—deri^yes from castra, the Latin word for camp. The Roman capital was London (Londinium). York had been created as a northern stronghold and Bath rapidly developed be­ cause of its waters.f Between the large towns the Romans construct­ ed a network of major and secondary roads, not always as straight as tradition would have them but of remarkable solidity as the sur­ viving road across the moors at Blackstone Edge, Littleborough, still shows{ From London, roads radiated all over the country along mutes which for much of their length are still in use as modern thor­ oqghfares: to the north by way of Watling Street and Ermine Street; to the east by way of the Cole hester road; to Chichester in

In the mid-Sth century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes. The

the south by Stane Street; to the west by the road that passed through Silchester then on to Cirencester (Corinium) and Glouces­ ter

The Romans made gbod use of Britain's natural resources, mining lead, iron and tin and manufacturing pottery. They built baths, temples, amphitheatres and beautiful villas.

The Romans also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. This came at first by indirect means, probably brought by traders and soldiers, and was quite well-established before the first Christian Emperor, Constantine, was proclaimed in AD 306.

The Romans remained in control of Britain for nearly 400 years. Then, with barbarians from Eastern Europe at the gates of Rome, under repeated attacks from Picts and also from the Scots (the "tat­ tooed ones" who invaded from the north of Ireland) and needing to set up a new military front on the east coast to hold off the Germanic Saxon tribes invading from Europe, they pulled out in AD 410.

Although Britain became part of a vast sophisticated Roman Em­ pire all around the Mediterranean, the Roman impact upon the Britons was surprisingly limited. The Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Never during the 4 cen­ turies did the Romans and Britons intermarry. The Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons. However, other invasions of far less sophisticated peoples had far greater cul­ tural impact upon Britain.

When people refer to Britain, they often use different names such as Britain, Great Britain, England, the British Isles, the United Kingdom or the UK. Do they mean the same thing? Or are they different?

Strictly speaking, the British Isles, Great Britain and England are all geographical names. They are not the official name of the country. The British Isles are made up of two large islands and hun­ dreds of small ones. The two large istands are Great Britain and Ire­ land. Great Britain is the larger of these two islands. It forms the United Kingdom with Northern Ireland - the northern part of Ire­ land. So the official name of the United Kingdom is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. But it is too much of a mouthful toich a 1ongñme for a so people just say Britain, the United Kingdom or simjily UK. This is one coun­ try on the British Isles and its capital is London. There is another country called the Republic of Ireland or Eire on the British Isles It takes up the remainder of Ireland - the southern part of Ireland. It has been an independent republic since 1949 and its capital is Dublin.

There are three political divisions on the island of Great Britain:

England, Scotland and Wales. England is the largest, most popu­ lous and generally speaking the richest section. So people tend to use "England" and English" when they mean "Britain" and "British". This sometimes annoys the Scots or the Welsh who do not regard themselves as English and who have a culture and even a language of their own.

Britain has been one of the most important countries in the world. About a hundred years ago, as a result of its imperialist expansion, Britain ruled an empire that had one fourth of the world's people and one fourth of the world's land area. It had colonies not only in North America, but also in Asia, Africa and Australia. However, the two world wars greatly weakened Britain. The British colonies became independent one after another. The British Empire gradual­ ly disappeared and it was replaced by the British Commonwealth or the Commonwealth of Nations in 1931.

The Commonwealth ( of Nations) is a free association of independ­ent countries that were once colonies of Britain Member nations are joined together economically and have certain trading arrangements. The Commonwealth has no special powers. The decision to become a member of the Commonwealth is left to each nation. At present there are 50 member countries within the Commonwealth (1991).

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Reebok Columbus Blue Jackets Blue Premier Hockey Jersey

when i wear it,i feel like what the Penguins wear on the the ice.

Features sewn on chest and shoulder logos as shown. 100% polyester double knit mid-weight Air-Knit fabric. All sizes listed in the drop down box are in stock for immediate shipment.   please  email us your name for Customined the jerseys! the jerseys without any Logo!   All Names & Numbers are Sewn on!!   24 Hours processing time on all orders to ensure quality.   11 accept online,order over 10pcs.We offer free shipping! UPS (order more than 45pcs,we suggest you use UPS) 3-4 days USPS  (1 - 40 pcs)  4-7days

The Premier Replica Jersey is engineered and constructed to duplicate the look of on-ice team designs. Front body consists of a comfortable polyester two-way stretch pique. Solid mesh inserts provide ventilation in underarm and back regions (where applicable). Performance polyester engineered interlock or striped knit collar, with NHL shield logo patch sewn to bottom of front collar fabric insert. Front chest crest features a combination of direct stitched embroidery and twill applique. Shoulder crests (where applicable) feature single layer screen printed tackle twill sewn directly to the jersey. Additional Features: - 175g/m2 polyester pique two-way stretch core body - Polyester interlock detailed trim - Reebok vector logo embroidered patch on back neck & left sleeve - Rbk/NHL Official .

This is new Reebok authentic NHL team color jersey. Looks just like what the Penguins wear on the ice. Features sewn on chest and shoulder logos as shown. 100% polyester double knit mid-weight Air-Knit fabric. All sizes listed in the drop down box are in stock for immediate shipment. please email us your name for Customined the jerseys! the jerseys without any Logo! All Names & Numbers are Sewn on!! 24 Hours processing time on all orders to ensure quality. 11 accept online,order over 10pcs.We offer free shipping! UPS (order more than 45pcs,we suggest you use UPS) 3-4 days USPS (1 - 40 pcs) 4-7days

This is new Reebok authentic NHL team color jersey. Looks just like what the Penguins wear on the ice. Features sewn on chest and shoulder logos as shown. 100% polyester double knit mid-weight Air-Knit fabric. All sizes listed in the drop down box are in stock for immediate shipment. please email us your name for Customined the jerseys! the jerseys without any Logo! All Names & Numbers are Sewn on!! 24 Hours processing time on all orders to ensure quality. 11 accept online,order over 10pcs.We offer free shipping! UPS (order more than 45pcs,we suggest you use UPS) 3-4 days USPS (1 - 40 pcs) 4-7days

Cheap Nfl Jerseys We offer orignal nfl jerseys at $39.99,free shipping to USA!!!online accept!

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]]> 11/27/2009 7:01:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=141 141

This is new Reebok authentic NHL team color jersey. Looks just like what the Penguins wear on the ice. Features sewn on chest and shoulder logos as shown. 100% polyester double knit mid-weight Air-Knit fabric. All sizes listed in the drop down box are in stock for immediate shipment. please email us your name for Customined the jerseys! the jerseys without any Logo! All Names & Numbers are Sewn on!! 24 Hours processing time on all orders to ensure quality. 11 accept online,order over 10pcs.We offer free shipping! UPS (order more than 45pcs,we suggest you use UPS) 3-4 days USPS (1 - 40 pcs) 4-7days

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Punt is one of the most important tactics.A good punt is not only out of turnover risk.But also it can even pose a threat for attracking each other in some case.A good punt which of course can make the distance away from the next spot of other side closer to Endzone.There are still four or five big men on the front line which is order to prevent the other side fast approating the punter.And the other several players are very fast DB.They view to close to the back attacker fast quickly so that they cannont advance. As for the punter its strength and skill determines the placement of the ball. The player must adjust the strike and take an accurate kick in a lots of time (maximum is 23 seconds).As a former defensive.the other party has two objective.The first is more radical effort to prevent the other side punting block.All the front-line staff are toward each other.The wosrst result will abtain the best offensive position if it successes.It is effective especially in the time of the other closing to their areas.

Beacause there is less space for the punter to return .This means that the player can reach within a shorter time and stop the other side.Of course.each tactial have both advantages and disadvanges.The consequences of assaulting across the board is that the rear back is unprotected to attack .So long as the opponent kick the ball successfully.Then this side could not get the desired number of yards.The conservative style of playing.spent the most attacking ataff to protect themselves so that they will abtain a good offensive position.Unfortunately,this part of the punting do not quite true in the game.

It is difficult to appeat for the punt block.The best case only made the punter early closing-out the foot and the ball will out of the bounds.The return attacking is difficult extremely blocking do not quick well.

It is more intuitive for shooting .But the tactics are not many as the changing of the tactics leave it to paste in the discussion of tactics. There are three rules. The first rule is the ordinary lofty goals pttting the ball into the other remote site.

Then the teammate sprint ahead so as to stop the ball to promote.And the second is scribbkick .This kind of bail will fall to the ground fast. This will causse mor difficult to catch the ball by the other side.Because the clock start to run from the begin of the match.There are more chances to waste time. This case is generally used to score and time remaining few minutes.The final is a gambling style kick off .we call ed it onside kick. Both side may snath the ball if the ball is kicked off for more than 10yards in the US-football rule.But the kicked party cannot advance the ball.Otherwise,they will loss the right .It is ordinary to take the last ditch fight when there is short time and this side are behinde .

As for the attacking of kick back.It is not good to compare the game with the actual.The efficiency of blocking is not very good..

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So now that you've had a chance to see 'em, what do you think of the Seattle Seahawks in green?

It's not exactly what I expected ... green shirts with blue sleeves. Looks like a lime vest. The pants are dark blue.

Definitely a different look. Maybe it'll grow on me, but my initial reaction is that it just doesn't look like the Seahawks.

Houshmandzadeh, Seneca Wallace and most of the receivers and running backs have accessorized their outfits with neon green shoes and gloves.

Even the Seagals are wearing green No. 12 jerseys on the sidelines and look just fine.

But the big men on the interior? The guys in the trenches like 330-pound Colin Cole and Brandon Mebane? Let's just say the lime-vest look does NOT have a slimming effect.

If they beat Chicago today, of course, no one will care what they wear. Or will they?

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]]> 11/17/2009 6:21:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=137 137 <<<<previous blog                                                    next blog>>>>

After the NFL setting foot in China offically in 2004.the NFL experienced a section to try to find out difficulty. NFL had already realized the importance to raises fans in China. And developed waist flag rugby in these schools.

In the second half of this year,the first introducing NFL comprehensively by the NFL offical supported the Chinese basic comprehensive work will be published offically by the people’s sports publishing house.

NFL sets firm resolve to develop the international space in big strides. NFL did not satisfy only in holding the warm-up match in overseas. It would present the tuue competition for the audience. NFL announced that they would hold a regular season in London in February’s super bowl period. It was different with the NBA athletic competition system. The NFL only held 16 competitions in a regular season. It was essential for each victory and defeating. It didn’t look like the NBA regular season which was a warm-up match in the first half basic. The NFL’S viewing ratio was extremely high for each competition.

The competes success which held in London would influence the season operation which held in overseasons for the future. The NFL couldn’t but cancel the China’s warm-up match which held in time internal. This was very advantageous to Cina’s development actually. NFL had more time to carry on the fundation promotion work. The warms-up competition would be more amazing two years later .

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The viewing ratio of this year’s NBA total championship match was horrible to look in American. The NBA which always opened the NBA market by holding the star thought that Lebro entering the finals would enhance the viewing ratio greatly. The first competition created the historic low viewing ratio in the American unexpectedly . it had slided to 19 percentage points caoparing to the total championship match of last year. The 2^nd competition was in lowly again . it has slided to 30 percentage points comparing to last year.

The collecting fees channel of HBO’s viewing ratio runovered the NBA greatly which was broadcasted by the free national television station. The NBA ’s president of David Stern had to explain it embarrassedly. We must know that the broadcasting of NFL in American home was the emperor daugher who need not worry even if the NFL was in the regular seasons.

But the NFL happened to inverts in Chia’s treatment and NBA. The NFL development had just started in China. The most difficult problem was the popularization and to enhance the fans’ rudiments.

The NBA needn’t teach the fans what is three-pointer and what is technical offense. There were not the ready-made Chinese about the NFL ’s basic player position actually. Saying nothing of the contest rule and the tactic.

The NFL realized very soberly that it would be a long time and difficulty to develop in China. The NFL international vice-president Gordon said:” we must release a series of Chinese teminology. We never got the problem during the period of populalring rugby in the other countries. Indeed , popularization job require very long time.”

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At the end of June,the managed 16 years NFL Europa was closed down afted the champion coming out no more than one week.Some Chinese fans said that the NFL company had given up the Europ field unexpectedly which developed so many years.Then what does the China have?

At the end of June still.The NFL member of Watson came to China for his fist time.he had made outreach activities for three days.some awaiting eagerly Chinese fans began puazzled in the NFL .how to understand the NFL’s International strategic decisions for the past three months.its behavior is difficulty to understand looking like.

how far do the NFL to us? Many fans like taking the NBA to compare with the NFL hurriedly in China. The NFL’s starting point of developing was lower than the NBA in China objectivly. The NFL ’s starting point started from zero nearly. The Chinese had already played the basketball before the NBA coming into China . the things which the NBA should do were to recommend their league tournament and to seek several Chinese star players. However ,the NBA had spent ten years to open chinese market competely. Also begin as the sliding of Chinese football market. The NBA was more popular in China than in American actually.

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He just experienced the most wonderful personal professional perform in the football field.Then he had to farewell to the season .Because of the stab ahead of scheduale .It was just the time before the new season..The Giants general manager Jerry Rees said that.

Pillips suffered the knee injury unceasingly in the training battalion starting actually.His two knee in unhealth.Phillips indeed felt shaking and disapppointing while he faced the result of obsencing the sport season.

At the end of June,the managed 16 years NFL Europa was closed down afted the champion coming out no more than one week.Some Chinese fans said that the NFL company had given up the Europ field unexpectedly which developed so many years.Then what does the China have?

At the end of June still.The NFL member of Watson came to China for his fist time.he had made outreach activities for three days.some awaiting eagerly Chinese fans began puazzled in the NFL .how to understand the NFL’s International strategic decisions for the past three months.its behavior is difficulty to understand looking like.

how far do the NFL to us? Many fans like taking the NBA to compare with the NFL hurriedly in China. The NFL’s starting point of developing was lower than the NBA in China objectivly. The NFL ’s starting point started from zero nearly. The Chinese had already played the basketball before the NBA coming into China . the things which the NBA should do were to recommend their league tournament and to seek several Chinese star players. However ,the NBA had spent ten years to open chinese market competely. Also begin as the sliding of Chinese football market. The NBA was more popular in China than in American actually.

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]]> 11/4/2009 2:31:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=128 128   

  An All-American running back at Arkansas, Alworth never even thought about playing pro football while he was dominating the college game. When his father watched the epic 1958 NFL title contest in which the Baltimore Colts beat the New York Giants in overtime, Alworth didn't pay much attention.

"You have to go back to those years and, in 1961-63, pro football was just becoming really popular and had not hit where it is today," says Alworth, inducted into the Hall in 1978. "I played in the South and there were no pro teams in the South at the time. You didn't think about it when playing high school or college ball."

When Hunt's Dallas Texans told Alworth they would draft him to play defensive back, Alworth told them, "Don't waste your time, I am not interested in defensive back. I'll go to law school."

But Al Davis, the receivers coach for the Chargers in 1962, envisioned Alworth as a game-breaking wideout -- even though Arkansas hardly ever threw the ball.

"I love to catch the football, I told Al," Alworth recalls. "And Al said, 'I thought you did, and the only time I get to see you catch the football is during warmups.'"

Davis certainly knew what he was doing, and Alworth became pro football's premier receiver and one of the men who symbolized the AFL's wide-open approach to the passing game.

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  The beginning was a Khaki attire for camping in the AFL spring and summer clothes acting. This clothes' left shoulder even cut down.As if the heroine that play the part of Matou just returned from the field exploration. She put on a Islam type,golden color.low waist measurement trousers which is lived by two brown’s waistbands. He carried on the long pectoral girdle camp package and weared the gentleman ceremonial hat which blocked one of his eyes. The entire model was lazy, optional, was hale and hearty, was relaxed, was modern and unified cowboy's comfortable.----that was the type of the whole clothes acting.

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]]> 11/1/2009 5:42:00 AM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=126 126 Introduction to The NFL Football Sports

The NFL Football sports is as old as hunam life. And the history of NFL Football sports can date back millions of years ago when people lived in caves,the earliest sports consisted of hunting competitions where the person who killed the most animals was honored and given gifts.The first sports served as a very immdiate need,that is,to find food.Gradually however , sport changed from mainly hunting to simple playing for pleasure.

China is widely believed to be one of the earliest countries where sport was played simply for pleasure and as long ago as 4000 BC,there is evidence of Chinese people practicing gymnastics.Even today China is famous for its very skilled gymnasts.

We can look back to ancient Rome and Greece to find the first major organised sports competitions but it was not until a few hundred years ago that humans first started playing team sports like NFL football or rugby.The first sport team were played in English public schools and common rules evolved so that different schools could play games with each other fairly, such as football , ,and according to generally accepted principles.

Nowdays there are many more sports in the world except The NFL Football sports .We also have lots of interests in other sport competitions.

Beijing standard time on September 22 ,Woods watched the NFL Conventional competition between the Miami porpoise team and Indianapolis small horse caravan in scene.The Miami porpoise team was the home field.. Serena Williams, celebrity and Zhan Nifu – Luopeizi were in scence also. This was the 2nd week of NFL new seaso merely. And Woods will participate in the TOUR Championship in the Atlanta East Lake .It is the Conclusion match for the federal express cup of US patrols.

1. The NFL Of Detroit Male Lion Team

Goal: Mathew Stafford, Quaterback, Georgia University

Appraisal: Perhaps the male lion team was interested to Alabama University’s truncation front Andre-Smith once. But the NFL discovered their the most important task which is to elect a qualified quarter back after observating the free player market . For meeting the male lion team’s need and hosing the unit potential of the leader. Stafford was that kind of technical member which has the ability to be on the site member. The quarterback basic skills were very kind soliding.

2. The NFL Of St. Louis ram team

Goal: Eugene Monroe, Attacking truncation front, The University of Virginia

Appraisal: The ram team spent the untold hardships completely to leave behind the quarterback of Mark - Pakistan erg. Although he was troubled unceasingly in the past several years. The attack truncation front looked like to be the best choice to them. Monroe had the outstanding body controlling ability. The comprehensive physical quality is very outstanding. He ruled the NFL left wing hopefully in the future

It's the "09-R-3260" New York Giants jersey, or for those of you who are not familiar with what exactly that may mean, it is the new number that former Giants' receiver turned prison inmate, Plaxico Burress, will be dawning on the back of his orange jumpsuit.  Now you can have your own Giants jersey with the same numbers on the back.  That is, of course, if the NFL will allow you to.

While they haven't been advertised yet on NFL.com, you can only assume that Giants haters alike will be rushing to their computers or stores in order to get their hands on this newly released article of clothing.  What makes it so new?  Well it has only been one day since Burress was assigned his inmate number, and that was just one of the notable events among a day with plenty for him as he enters a dreadful two years of confinement.

Plaxico Burress got a zero's welcome behind bars at Rikers Island, including taunts of "a - - hole!" and "The Giants suck!" according to jail guards.

"He was depressed," said one guard from Rikers, where the former Giants superstar spent his first-ever night behind bars. "He was trying to keep to himself, but everyone was yelling at him."

"These people got nothing," a second guard explained of the taunts. "What else are they gonna do?" [New York Post]

And that was just the beginning.

His stay at his first stop, Rikers, was brief. By 11 a.m. yesterday, he'd been driven upstate to the medium-security, 586-inmate Ulster Correctional Facility in Napanoch, an intake center where he'll be evaluated for more permanent placement elsewhere in the state prison system, said Correction Department spokeswoman Linda Foglia.

At Ulster, Burress was strip-searched. He was also shorn of his trademark goatee.

He got a shower, an ID card, an orientation session and his new wardrobe. That includes his hunter-green uniform tops and bottoms, a pair of black work boots, and a pair of white, low-top canvas sneakers.

Now the difficult decision begins for Cowboy and Redskins fans.  Do they opt for a Michael Vick jersey for their pouch, or are their interests better served with Burress' inmate number plastered on the back of their very own Giants jersey.  Either way, you can expect the Giants to see this creative new look in visiting stadiums everywhere.

      In the competition with the Dallas Cowboy’s of last Sunday.Pillips displayed his own talent in the competition . he contributed two steals individal to the team. But fate opened a less friendly joke with the New York Giants halfback Kenny who named Phillips.

He just experienced the most wonderful personal professional perform in the football field.Then he had to farewell to the season .Because of the stab ahead of scheduale .It was just the time before the new season..The Giants general manager Jerry Rees said that.

Pillips suffered the knee injury unceasingly in the training battalion starting actually.His two knee in unhealth.Phillips indeed felt shaking and disapppointing while he faced the result of obsencing the sport season.

     Beijing standard time on September 22 ,Woods watched the NFL Conventional competition between the Miami porpoise team Indianapolis small horse caravan in scene.The Miami porpoise team was the home field.. Serena Williams, celebrity and Zhan Nifu – Luopeizi were in scence also. This was the 2nd week of NFL new seaso merely. And Woods will participate the TOUR Championship in the Atlanta East Lake .It is the Conclusion match for the the federal express cup of US patrols.

     Nimda is a new network -aware,mass-mailing virus.Nimada attacks at least a dozen known vulnerabilities on systems running Microsoft IIs. And can also spread via open shares to other connected machines on a network.

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   First,don't open attachment!One of the best ways to prevent virus infections is not to open attachments especially when viruses such as this are actively circulating.Even if the e-mail message is from a known source,be careful.A few viruses take

mailing lists from an infected computer and send out new messages with their destructive payload attached.

   Second,get protection.Install virus-protection software on your machine .Simply download any of the top-rated programs and fellow the installation instructions.

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Recent advertising studies show the advantage of giving t-shirts and polo shirts away at events, outings, or as customer gifts. It was found that almost 90 percent of the consumers surveyed were able to recall a company’s name or service after they were given a promotional t-shirt. A whopping 60 percent went on to buy from the company or use their services.

Promotional t-shirts and polo shirts also offer residual benefits the studies show. “Not only do the people who get the item become aware of your services. Every time they wear the shirt they are advertising for you. We even found that when the receiver stops wearing the t-shirt, usually after 6 months, 50 percent will be given away for someone else to wear,” states marketing expert Mark Senses.

What does this mean for your company? “Easily put, these results mean a major cut in your advertising budget. You give away 100 t-shirts at a cost of $8 apiece. Those hundred t-shirts have the potential of reaching over 100,000 people in 6 months. And if you give the t-shirts away to your target market the people they come into contact with when wearing your t-shirt will also be your target market,” Senses says about the real world marketing applications of the studies.

Promotional wear is a great way to brand your company or your business. It is a cost effective way to advertise and grow. If you are lucky your logo and t-shirt will become trendy, a have to have fashion item. You may end up actually selling the t-shirts because demand is so high. But, even if you don’t become a t-shirt seller you will benefit for months to come from your cadre of walking billboards.

The Ralph Lauren Polo also equally played with other brands which has cherished the people “the acrobatics” .Ralph Lauren launch special services which includs men’s wear,Children and infant wear. You can choose the products from Polo shirt to gown.it is freedom to pair up color and the logo.The most unique design may embroider the national flag design on the right chest, only provides 30 countries at present.

]]> 9/14/2009 9:14:00 PM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=112 112 I want to say one fault about polo.Do u agree with me ?Please leave your opinion,thank you very much!
I have driven my POLO CAR for four years.It have travelled 15000 kilometres. It is perfect. i love its design,steering wheel and so on.But there is one fault which has troubled me for a long time.Why do POLO CAR's gasoline tank without lock? i cann't understanding it.

Thursday, September 10th, 2009

If you want to dress well but don’t have the budget, aren’t particularly good at laundry and stuff, and never feel very sure about clothing rules, Ralph Lauren Polo Shirts are the perfect solution.

To begin with, they are a durable garment, so they put up with being washed at the wrong temperature, with the wrong stuff, being used as a dish-towel or a cushion to sit on in the park, or a goalpost for a game of scratch football, and still look great.

Secondly, Ralph Lauren Polo Shirts  come in a range of colours and designs, they are ideal casual wear but the longer sleeves give an added touch of formality that a rugby shirtsor a sweatshirt doesn’t have.

Ralph Lauren Polo Shirts keep you warm while looking cool – if you’re one of those people who hate to wear a jacket, or forget to carry one, then a rugby shirt is the ideal option – it keeps you warm enough without looking like you’re bundled up in clothing.

White collars look great. If you’re a bloke and have a hangover or didn’t have time to shave, the collar lightens your face and suggests that you’re rugged rather than wasted. And any woman looks great in a Ralph Lauren Polo Shirts – just ask a bloke!

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Ralph Lauren has always stood for providing quality products, creating worlds and inviting people to take part in  dream. We were the innovators of lifestyle advertisements that tell a story and the first to create stores that encourage customers to participate in that lifestyle. Ralph Lauren  takes this participation to a new level, as a rich and exciting interactive destination. When you are transported into the world of Ralph Lauren , you can learn about adventure, style and culture , find one-of-a-kind vintage pieces and exquisite gifts and much, much more.

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]]> 6/22/2004 10:48:00 PM http://www.8pixel.net/simpleblog/?view=pLink&id=104 104